This article comprehensively overviews the most important philosophy terminologies crucial for CSS and PMS aspirants. Learning to write them will enable aspirants to navigate complex political concepts effectively.
Learning to write subject terminologies is always essential for competitive exam students, especially CSS and PMS. This practice gives aspirants a deeper understanding of complex concepts, ultimately helping them articulate their thoughts clearly. Learning to write these terms appropriately not only enhances comprehension but also equips aspirants to engage effectively with exam essays. For example, in fields like political economy, acquaintance with terms such as “globalization” and “trade barriers” helps aspirants confidently analyze and debate relevant issues. After learning these terminologies, aspirants can tackle exam questions more adeptly because they can apply these terms contextually, demonstrating their knowledge and critical thinking skills. Therefore, learning subject-specific terminology is not just about learning words or vocabulary; it’s all about improving exam scores.
I have compiled the following terminologies from various reputable sources: dictionaries, websites, books, and magazines. This compilation is intended to aid my students in enhancing their vocabulary and effectively articulating their thoughts in essays, whether for compulsory or optional subjects.
Important Philosophy Terminology
| A priori |
| Knowledge independent of experience (e.g., mathematical truths). |
| A posteriori |
| Knowledge dependent on experience (e.g., observational science). |
| Absolutism |
| The belief in absolute principles, particularly in ethics or politics. |
| Agnosticism |
| The belief that the existence of God is unknown or unknowable. |
| Altruism |
| Concern for the well-being of others, often at one’s own expense. |
| Analytic Philosophy |
| A style of philosophy that focuses on language and logic. |
| Aristotelianism |
| The philosophical tradition based on the work of Aristotle, focusing on logic, ethics, and metaphysics. |
| Being |
| The fundamental nature or essence of existence. |
| Categorical Imperative |
| Immanuel Kant’s principle that one should act only according to maxims that can be universally applied. |
| Cosmology |
| The study of the origin and structure of the universe. |
| Deontology |
| Ethical theory focused on adherence to rules or duties. |
| Ethics |
| The branch of philosophy that deals with questions of morality and values. |
| Idealism |
| The belief that reality is fundamentally mental or immaterial. |
| Identity |
| The concept of what makes an individual or thing distinct from others. |
| Indeterminism |
| The view that not all events are determined by prior causes. |
| Instrumentalism |
| The belief that theories are tools for prediction rather than descriptions of reality. |
| Intuitionism |
| The ethical theory that moral truths are known by intuition. |
| Libertarianism (Free Will) |
| The belief that humans have absolute free will, unconstrained by determinism. |
| Metaphysics |
| The branch of philosophy that studies the nature of reality, existence, and the fundamental structure of the world. |
| Moral Relativism |
| The belief that moral judgments are not absolute but depend on cultural, societal, or personal perspectives. |
| Nihilism |
| The belief that life has no inherent meaning or value. |
| Panpsychism |
| The belief that all matter has consciousness or mental properties. |
| Phenomenology |
| The study of structures of consciousness as experienced from the first-person point of view. |
| Positivism |
| The belief that knowledge is exclusively derived from empirical science. |
| Pragmatism |
| The belief that truth is determined by practical consequences and utility. |
| Rationalism |
| The belief that reason, rather than sensory experience, is the primary source of knowledge. |
| Realism |
| The belief that external reality exists independently of perception or thought. |
| Skepticism |
| The view that we cannot have certain knowledge. |
| Social Contract |
| The theory that individuals agree to form societies and governments to avoid the chaos of the state of nature. |
| Stoicism |
| A philosophy that teaches self-control and rationality as the means to achieve inner peace. |
| Structuralism |
| The analysis of cultural systems and structures, particularly language, that shape human experience. |
| Subjectivism |
| The belief that truth or moral values depend on individual perspective or feelings. |
| Theism |
| The belief in the existence of a god or gods. |
| Transcendentalism |
| The belief in the inherent goodness of people and nature, often associated with spiritual experience beyond the physical world. |
| Utilitarianism |
| The ethical theory that actions are right if they promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number. |
| Virtue Ethics |
| A moral theory that focuses on developing good character traits (virtues) rather than on rules or consequences. |
| Hylomorphism |
| Aristotle’s theory that all physical objects are a combination of matter and form. |
| Immanence |
| The belief that the divine or spiritual exists within the material world. |
| Kantianism |
| The philosophy of Immanuel Kant, focusing on duty, moral law, and the categorical imperative. |
| Logical Positivism |
| A 20th-century movement asserting that meaningful statements must be either empirically verifiable or analytically true. |
| Metaphysical Realism |
| The belief that reality exists independently of the mind. |
| Moral Absolutism |
| The belief that moral principles are unchangeable and apply universally. |
| Nominalism |
| The belief that universals (e.g., properties, types) do not have real existence but exist only as names. |
| Pessimism |
| The belief that life is generally bad or that the world tends toward suffering and disorder. |
| Phenomenon |
| An observable event or experience; in Kantian philosophy, the world as we perceive it. |
| Postmodernism |
| A philosophical movement skeptical of grand narratives, objectivity, and absolute truth, often emphasizing cultural relativism. |
| Process Philosophy |
| The view that reality is in a constant state of change or becoming, rather than static being. |
| Reification |
| The treatment of abstract concepts as if they were real, concrete entities. |
| Self |
| The individual as distinct from others, often the subject of personal identity or consciousness studies. |
| Speculative Philosophy |
| Philosophical thought aimed at proposing broad, often metaphysical, theories about the nature of reality. |
| Socratic Method |
| A method of questioning to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas, used by Socrates. |
| Substance |
| That which exists independently and underlies all attributes and properties. |
| Synthetic A Priori |
| Kant’s concept of knowledge that is gained independently of experience but informs experience (e.g., mathematics). |
| Universalism |
| The belief in the existence of universal truths or values. |
| Virtue |
| A quality of moral excellence, central to many ethical theories. |
| Wittgensteinian Philosophy |
| The philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein, particularly focused on language, meaning, and the limits of expression. |
| Zeno’s Paradoxes |
| A set of philosophical problems proposed by Zeno of Elea, dealing with motion and infinity. |
| Anthropocentrism |
| The belief that human beings are the central or most significant entities in the universe. |
| Atheism |
| The belief that there is no god or gods. |
| Behaviorism |
| The theory that human and animal behavior can be explained in terms of conditioning without appeal to thoughts or feelings. |
| Eclecticism |
| The practice of deriving ideas, styles, or taste from a broad and diverse range of sources. |
| Egalitarianism |
| The belief in human equality, especially in political, social, and economic affairs. |
| Existential Angst |
| A feeling of dread or anxiety, often linked to the human condition in existentialist philosophy. |
| Fideism |
| The doctrine that religious beliefs rely on faith rather than reason. |
| Legal Positivism |
| The theory that law is determined by social facts and institutions, rather than moral arguments. |
| Normative Ethics |
| The study of ethical action and the standards for right and wrong behavior. |
| Otherness |
| The philosophical concept of recognizing the existence of the ‘Other,’ especially in existential and social theories. |
| Philosophical Zombie |
| A hypothetical being that behaves like a conscious person but lacks conscious experience. |
| Relationalism |
| The belief that relations between entities are as fundamental as the entities themselves. |
| Sublation |
| In Hegelian philosophy, the process of resolving contradictions by synthesizing elements of the opposing ideas into a higher form. |
| Absurdism |
| A philosophy that explores the conflict between humans’ desire to find meaning in life and the universe’s indifference to that search. |
| Aestheticism |
| The belief that art and beauty are the most important aspects of life, above moral or social issues. |
| Affective Fallacy |
| The error of judging a work of art by its emotional effects on the audience rather than its formal structure or meaning. |
| Allegory |
| A narrative where characters and events symbolize abstract ideas or moral qualities. |
| Alienation |
| A concept in existentialism and Marxism referring to the estrangement of individuals from society, work, or their true selves. |
| Amor Fati |
| Nietzsche’s concept meaning “love of fate”; the embrace of life’s events, whether good or bad. |
| Anthropomorphism |
| The attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. |
| Apatheia |
| In Stoicism, a state of being free from emotional disturbance or passion. |
| Axiology |
| The study of values, including both ethics and aesthetics. |
| Bad Faith (Mauvaise foi) |
| Sartre’s idea of self-deception, where individuals deny their freedom and responsibility by conforming to social roles. |
| Benthamism |
| The philosophy of Jeremy Bentham, particularly utilitarianism, where the greatest good is the maximization of happiness. |
| Bourgeoisie |
| In Marxist theory, the capitalist class that owns the means of production. |
| Cartesian Dualism |
| Descartes’ theory that the mind and body are distinct substances, with the mind being non-material and the body being physical. |
| Categorical Syllogism |
| A form of deductive reasoning consisting of two premises and a conclusion, where each statement begins with “all,” “no,” or “some.” |
| Cognitive Dissonance |
| The mental discomfort experienced when holding two conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes simultaneously. |
| Communitarianism |
| A philosophy emphasizing the importance of community in shaping individual identities and values, often contrasted with liberal individualism. |
| Consciousness |
| The state of being aware of and able to think about one’s own existence, sensations, thoughts, and surroundings. |
| Consequentialism |
| An ethical theory that judges actions by their outcomes or consequences, rather than intrinsic qualities. |
| Constructivism |
| A philosophy of knowledge that argues that humans generate knowledge and meaning through interactions with their environment. |
| Correspondence Theory of Truth |
| The theory that truth is determined by how accurately it reflects reality. |
| Cosmopolitanism |
| The belief in global citizenship and the idea that all human beings are part of a single community. |
| Cultural Relativism |
| The view that moral systems and beliefs are culturally bound and should be understood in their cultural context. |
| Deconstruction |
| A method of literary and philosophical analysis developed by Derrida, focusing on the inherent instability of meaning in texts. |
| Dialectical Materialism |
| The Marxist concept that political and historical events result from the conflict of social forces, driven by material needs. |
| Divine Command Theory |
| The view that morality is dependent on the commands of a divine being. |
| Dogmatism |
| The stubborn adherence to established principles or doctrines, often without consideration of alternative views or evidence. |
| Eliminative Materialism |
| The view that common-sense psychological concepts such as beliefs, desires, and emotions are scientifically invalid. |
| Emotivism |
| The theory that moral statements do not describe facts but express emotional attitudes. |
| Eternal Return |
| Nietzsche’s idea that the universe and all events within it are eternally recurring. |
| Existential Crisis |
| A moment in which an individual questions the very foundations of their life: whether it has meaning, purpose, or value. |
| Falsifiability |
| A principle in philosophy of science asserting that for a theory to be considered scientific, it must be able to be proven false. |
| Foundationalism |
| The view that knowledge must be built on a set of basic, indubitable beliefs. |
| Gestalt Psychology |
| A psychological approach that emphasizes that we perceive objects as whole forms, rather than as the sum of individual parts. |
| Golden Mean |
| Aristotle’s ethical principle that virtue lies in finding a balance between extremes. |
| Hegelian Dialectic |
| A method of argument in which a thesis is opposed by an antithesis, leading to a synthesis that resolves the conflict. |
| Hermeneutics |
| The study of interpretation, particularly of texts and meanings. |
| Hypothetical Imperative |
| In Kant’s philosophy, a command that applies only if one desires the associated outcome (e.g., “If you want to be healthy, you must exercise”). |
| Ideal Speech Situation |
| A concept by Jürgen Habermas in which communication is free from domination and distortion, allowing genuine dialogue. |
| Immanent |
| Existing or operating within; often used in contrast with transcendence to refer to God or the divine as existing within the universe. |
| Intentional Fallacy |
| The mistake of judging a work of art based on the author’s intent rather than the content and meaning of the work itself. |
| Intersubjectivity |
| The shared, common understanding among individuals in a community or society. |
| Irony |
| A literary or rhetorical technique in which there is a discrepancy between appearance and reality, or between what is expected and what happens. |
| Is-Ought Problem |
| A philosophical issue raised by David Hume, questioning whether moral statements can be logically derived from factual statements. |
| Jus ad Bellum |
| The principles governing the justification of entering into war. |
| Jus in Bello |
| The principles governing conduct during war, such as proportionality and discrimination. |
| Liberalism |
| A political and moral philosophy based on individual rights, equality, and freedom of speech and religion. |
| Logical Atomism |
| A philosophy developed by Bertrand Russell, arguing that the world consists of logically independent facts. |
| Ludwig Feuerbach |
| A philosopher who argued that God is a projection of human ideals and desires. |
| Logical Fallacy |
| An error in reasoning that weakens an argument. |
| Meaning of Life |
| A central question in philosophy concerning the purpose and significance of human existence. |
| Mechanistic Materialism |
| The belief that all natural phenomena can be explained by physical causes and mechanical laws. |
| Mediated Knowledge |
| Knowledge that is not directly experienced, but acquired through interpretation or testimony. |
| Moral Philosophy |
| The branch of philosophy that deals with questions about ethics and morality. |
| Mysticism |
| A belief in the experience of union with the divine, often through spiritual contemplation. |
| Negative Liberty |
| The freedom from interference by others; often contrasted with positive liberty (the freedom to achieve one’s potential). |
| Normativity |
| The study of principles, rules, or laws that govern human actions and judgments, especially in ethics and political theory. |
| Occam’s Razor |
| A principle that suggests the simplest explanation is often the best. |
| Ontological Argument |
| An argument for the existence of God based on the concept of God as the greatest conceivable being. |
| Panentheism |
| The belief that the divine pervades and interpenetrates every part of the universe and extends beyond it. |
| Parmenides |
| A pre-Socratic philosopher who argued that change and multiplicity are illusions and that reality is singular and unchanging. |
| Performativity |
| A concept developed by Judith Butler, suggesting that identity and gender are constructed through repeated actions or performances. |
| Phenomenological Reduction |
| In phenomenology, the process of suspending judgments about the existence of the external world to focus on pure experience. |
| Pluralism |
| The belief that there are multiple perspectives or truths and that no single one has absolute authority. |
| Post-structuralism |
| A movement in philosophy and literary theory that challenges the idea of fixed meanings or structures, emphasizing fluidity and multiplicity of meaning. |
| Predestination |
| The religious belief that all events, including human actions, are predetermined by a divine will. |
| Principle of Charity |
| The practice of interpreting another’s argument in its strongest, most rational form before critiquing it. |
| Primum Movens (Prime Mover) |
| Aristotle’s concept of the initial cause that set the universe in motion. |
| Propositional Knowledge |
| Knowledge of facts or propositions (knowing that something is the case). |
| Protagoras |
| A pre-Socratic sophist who famously claimed, “Man is the measure of all things,” emphasizing relativism. |
| Psychologism |
| The tendency to explain philosophical problems in terms of psychological processes. |
| Quietism |
| A philosophical stance that refrains from engaging in political or social action, emphasizing internal peace or tranquility. |
| Reductionism |
| The philosophical position that complex phenomena can be explained by simpler, more fundamental components. |
| Reflective Equilibrium |
| A method in ethics where one seeks coherence between moral principles and particular judgments. |
| Relational Ethics |
| The view that ethical decisions should be based on relationships and the context in which moral questions arise. |
| Relativism |
| The idea that truth and morality are not absolute but are shaped by cultural, social, or personal perspectives. |
| Right to Self-Determination |
| The principle that nations or peoples have the right to determine their own political future. |
| Socratic Irony |
| A method of questioning where the questioner pretends to be ignorant to expose the contradictions or flaws in the other person’s argument. |
| Solipsism |
| The philosophical theory that only one’s own mind is certain to exist, and everything else may be a projection of one’s consciousness. |
| Soteriology |
| The study of religious doctrines of salvation. |
| Sublime |
| In aesthetics, the quality of greatness or grandeur that evokes awe or wonder, often mixed with fear. |
| Tabula Rasa |
| Locke’s theory that the human mind is a blank slate at birth and that knowledge is gained through experience. |
| Technē |
| An ancient Greek term referring to craftsmanship, skill, or art. |
| Teleology |
| The study of purposes or ends; the belief that natural phenomena have a purpose or design. |
| Theodicy |
| The attempt to justify the existence of evil in a world governed by an all-powerful and benevolent God. |
| Theological Determinism |
| The belief that all events are determined by God’s will. |
| Thomism |
| The philosophical system developed by Thomas Aquinas, synthesizing Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. |
| Totalitarianism |
| A political system in which the state holds total authority and seeks to control all aspects of public and private life. |
| Transcendence |
| Going beyond ordinary limits; often used in philosophy of religion to describe a divine being or experience that goes beyond the material world. |
| Transvaluation of Values |
| Nietzsche’s concept of reevaluating and replacing traditional values with new ones. |
| Utopia |
| An ideal society in which everything is perfect, often used to critique contemporary social or political systems. |
| Vitalism |
| The belief that life cannot be explained solely by material processes and requires a special vital force. |
| Voluntarism |
| The theory that the will is the primary force in human behavior or the universe. |
| Will to Power |
| Nietzsche’s concept of the fundamental drive of humans, not for survival or pleasure, but for asserting dominance and power. |
| Worldview (Weltanschauung) |
| A particular philosophy or perspective on life and the world, often shaped by culture and experience. |
| Zoomorphism |
| Attributing animal traits to humans or gods. |
| Übermensch |
| Nietzsche’s concept of the “Overman” or “Superman,” a being who transcends conventional morality to create new values. |
| Zoroastrianism |
| One of the world’s oldest religions, emphasizing the duality of good and evil and the cosmic struggle between them. |
| Abduction |
| A form of reasoning that involves inferring the best explanation for a set of observations. |
| Accident |
| In Aristotle’s philosophy, a property that a subject has, but which is not essential to its nature. |
| Anamnesis |
| Plato’s concept that knowledge is a form of recollection from past incarnations. |
| Anarchism |
| The political philosophy that advocates for a society without government or hierarchical authority. |
| Anatta |
| A Buddhist concept meaning “no-self,” emphasizing that there is no permanent self or soul. |
| Ataraxia |
| A state of tranquility and freedom from fear, especially in Epicurean and Stoic philosophy. |
| Autonomy |
| The ability to make independent and self-governed decisions, central to Kant’s moral philosophy. |
| Bad Faith |
| A concept by Sartre, where individuals deceive themselves to avoid accepting their freedom and responsibility. |
| Bodhisattva |
| In Mahayana Buddhism, an enlightened being who delays their own nirvana to help others achieve enlightenment. |
| Brahman |
| In Hindu philosophy, the ultimate reality or world spirit from which everything emanates. |
| Buddha-nature |
| The inherent potential for enlightenment in all beings, according to Mahayana Buddhism. |
| Causality |
| The relationship between cause and effect, fundamental to metaphysics and philosophy of science. |
| Cognitive Science |
| An interdisciplinary field studying the mind, including psychology, neuroscience, and philosophy. |
| Compatibilism |
| The belief that free will and determinism are not mutually exclusive and can coexist. |
| Conceptualism |
| The theory that universals exist only within the mind and have no external reality. |
| Conscience |
| The internal moral compass that guides an individual’s sense of right and wrong. |
| Constructivist Epistemology |
| The view that knowledge is constructed by individuals through interaction with the world. |
| Contingency |
| The idea that things could have been different, contrasted with necessity in metaphysics. |
| Cynicism |
| A school of ancient Greek philosophy advocating for simple living and rejection of societal norms and material wealth. |
| Dao |
| In Daoism, the natural way of the universe that cannot be fully expressed in words but should be followed. |
| Deism |
| The belief that God created the universe but does not interfere with its operation. |
| Demiurge |
| In Platonic and Gnostic philosophy, a creator being responsible for the physical universe. |
| Determinism |
| The doctrine that all events, including human actions, are determined by previously existing causes. |
| Dialectic |
| A method of argument that involves the tension between opposing ideas, leading to their resolution in a synthesis. |
| Distributive Justice |
| The ethical principle concerned with the fair distribution of resources in society. |
| Dualism |
| The belief that reality consists of two fundamental, distinct substances, often referring to mind and body. |
| Dystopia |
| A fictional or theoretical society characterized by suffering, oppression, and a lack of freedoms. |
| Egoism |
| The ethical theory that self-interest is the foundation of morality. |
| Empiricism |
| The philosophical view that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience. |
| Enlightenment |
| In Eastern philosophy, the realization of true nature and liberation from suffering; in Western philosophy, a historical period emphasizing reason and individualism. |
| Epistemic Relativism |
| The view that knowledge and truth are relative to cultural, societal, or personal perspectives. |
| Epiphenomenalism |
| The theory that mental states are by-products of physical brain processes and do not affect physical actions. |
| Epistemology |
| The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature, scope, and limits of knowledge. |
| Eudaimonia |
| In Aristotelian ethics, the highest human good, often translated as “flourishing” or “happiness.” |
| Evil Demon |
| Descartes’ thought experiment proposing a deceptive being that could manipulate perceptions, questioning the certainty of knowledge. |
| Existentialism |
| A philosophical movement emphasizing individual freedom, choice, and the search for meaning in a seemingly indifferent or absurd world. |
| Fact-Value Distinction |
| The separation between statements of fact and statements of value or moral judgment. |
| Fatalism |
| The belief that events are predetermined and inevitable, often leading to resignation or passive acceptance of outcomes. |
| Feminism |
| A movement and philosophy advocating for equality between genders, challenging traditional power structures. |
| Free Will |
| The ability to make choices free from coercion or predetermination by external forces. |
| Gaia Hypothesis |
| The theory that the Earth and its biological systems behave as a self-regulating organism. |
| Game Theory |
| The study of strategic decision-making and the behavior of individuals in competitive or cooperative situations. |
| Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel |
| A German philosopher known for his dialectical method and theories on history, reality, and absolute spirit. |
| Golden Rule |
| A moral principle that encourages treating others as one would like to be treated. |
| Grace |
| In religious philosophy, the concept of unearned, divine favor or assistance. |
| Grounding Problem |
| A metaphysical issue concerning how abstract entities like properties, relations, or laws are grounded in reality. |
| Hedonism |
| The ethical theory that pleasure is the highest good and proper aim of human life. |
| Hermeneutical Circle |
| The idea that understanding is a process of interpreting parts of a text in relation to the whole, and vice versa. |
| Holism |
| The belief that parts of a system should be understood in terms of their relationship to the whole. |
| Humanism |
| A philosophical stance emphasizing human dignity, values, and the capacity for self-determination. |
| Illusionism |
| The theory that free will and consciousness are illusions created by brain processes. |
| Infinite Regress |
| A philosophical problem where a statement or theory leads to a never-ending series of logical steps. |
| Intentionality |
| The quality of mental states that are about, or directed toward, an object or state of affairs. |
| Jainism |
| An ancient Indian religion emphasizing non-violence, truth, and asceticism to attain spiritual liberation. |
| Karma |
| A concept in Indian philosophy that refers to the law of cause and effect in moral actions. |
| Liberal Democracy |
| A form of government that emphasizes individual rights, representative institutions, and the rule of law. |
| Libertarianism |
| The philosophical belief in free will, personal liberty, and minimal state intervention. |
| Logical Empiricism |
| A movement in philosophy that advocates for the verification of knowledge through logic and empirical evidence. |
| Madhyamaka |
| A Buddhist philosophy founded by Nagarjuna, emphasizing the emptiness of all phenomena. |
| Manicheanism |
| A dualistic religion that sees the world as a battle between good and evil forces. |
| Materialism |
| The metaphysical view that only physical matter exists, and all phenomena, including consciousness, are the result of material interactions. |
| Monism |
| The view that there is only one kind of substance or principle underlying all of reality. |
| Natural Law |
| The idea that certain rights or values are inherent in human nature and can be understood through reason. |
| Naturalism |
| The belief that everything can be explained by natural causes and laws, without recourse to supernatural explanations. |
| Negative Utilitarianism |
| A form of utilitarianism that prioritizes minimizing suffering over maximizing happiness. |
| Neo-Platonism |
| A philosophical system that interprets Plato’s work as involving a single source or principle, often associated with mystical or metaphysical ideas. |
| Non-Cognitivism |
| The view that moral statements do not express propositions that can be true or false, but instead express emotions or attitudes. |
| Noumenon |
| In Kant’s philosophy, the “thing-in-itself” that exists independently of our perception or knowledge. |
| Occasionalism |
| A metaphysical theory suggesting that God is the only true cause of events, with creatures merely being occasions for divine action. |
| Ontology |
| The branch of metaphysics that studies the nature of being, existence, and reality. |
| Open Theism |
| The theological view that God does not have complete foreknowledge of future events and that the future is open. |
| Pantheism |
| The belief that God and the universe are identical, seeing the divine in all aspects of the world. |
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