CSS 2026 Solved Islamiat Paper | Justification and Demands of the Two-Nation Theory
The following question of CSS Islamiat 2026 is solved by Miss Ayesha Irfan, the highest scorer in CSS Islamiat. Moreover, the question is attempted using the same pattern taught by Sir Syed Kazim Ali to his students, who have scored the highest marks in compulsory subjects for years. This solved past paper question is uploaded to help aspirants understand how to crack a topic or question, write relevantly, what coherence is, and how to include and connect ideas, opinions, and suggestions to score the maximum.
Question breakdown
The question demands justification of the Two-Nation Theory by linking it with the historical and contemporary plight of Indian and Kashmiri Muslims. It requires an analysis of the political, social, and religious marginalization of Muslims and an evaluation of how these realities validate the Two-Nation Theory’s demands and relevance.
Outline
1- Introduction
2- Islamic Worldview and the Need for Collective Muslim Identity
3- The Two-Nation Theory as an Expression of the Qur’anic Concept of Ummah
4- The justification and demands of the Two-Nation Theory
- Religious, Cultural, and Civilizational Distinctiveness of the Muslim Ummah
- Islamic and Historical Grounds for the Two-Nation Theory
- Collapse of Justice and Trust under Hindu-Majoritarian Politics in British India
- Necessity of Muslim Political Sovereignty and Constitutional Protection
- Kashmir as a Moral and Islamic Test Case for the Two-Nation Theory
- Human Rights Violations and Denial of Self-Determination from an Islamic Perspective
- Preservation of Muslim Faith, Identity, and Moral Order
5- Contemporary Validation of the Two-Nation Theory in the Light of Muslim Oppression
6- Critical analysis: Islamic Demands of the Two-Nation Theory in the Present Era
7- Conclusion
Introduction
The question of Muslim political destiny in South Asia cannot be examined merely as a historical episode tied to colonial withdrawal; rather, it must be understood as an outcome of a distinct Islamic worldview that views faith, identity, law, and collective life as inseparable. The Two-Nation Theory emerged from this worldview, asserting that Muslims and Hindus represented not just two communities but two civilizationally divergent nations. The contemporary plight of Indian and Kashmiri Muslims has reopened this debate, transforming the Two-Nation Theory from a historical argument into a living moral and political reality. When Muslim lives, faith, and dignity are persistently threatened under majoritarian rule, the theory’s justification demands reassessment in light of Islamic principles of justice, protection of faith, and collective survival.
Islamic Worldview and the Need for Collective Muslim Identity
Islam does not perceive human society as a loose aggregation of individuals bound only by territory or ethnicity; rather, it organizes believers into a moral community defined by faith, law, and shared responsibility. The Qur’an explicitly declares, “Indeed this Ummah of yours is one Ummah, and I am your Lord, so worship Me” (Al-Anbiya: 92). It establishes unity of belief as the foundation of collective identity. This Qur’anic conception rejects the idea that Muslims can safely dissolve into ideologically hostile majorities without losing their religious autonomy. History repeatedly demonstrates that when Muslims abandon collective identity, they become vulnerable to cultural erosion, legal marginalization, and moral disintegration.
From an Islamic perspective, collective identity is not a political luxury but a religious necessity. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) established the Madinan polity precisely to protect faith, ensure justice, and regulate communal life according to divine guidance. This precedent demonstrates that Islam demands not only personal piety but also collective arrangements that safeguard religious practice and moral order. Therefore, the Muslim insistence on a separate political destiny in South Asia was rooted in Islamic consciousness rather than communal paranoia.
The Two-Nation Theory as an Expression of the Qur’anic Concept of Ummah
The Two-Nation Theory was, in essence, a political articulation of the Qur’anic doctrine of Ummah. Islam recognizes diversity among humanity but draws a clear boundary between belief systems that are morally and legally incompatible. The Qur’an states, “For you is your religion, and for me is mine” (Al-Kafirun: 6). It affirms coexistence without assimilation. In British India, Muslims realized that numerical democracy under a Hindu-majoritarian framework would reduce Islam to a tolerated minority faith, stripped of its legal and cultural authority. Therefore, the theory asserted that Muslims constituted a separate nation because their worldview, law, social ethics, and historical consciousness were fundamentally distinct. This claim was not unprecedented; Islamic history shows that Muslims consistently sought autonomous governance wherever Islamic law and values were endangered. From Andalusia to the Ottoman frontiers, political separation was pursued whenever faith itself was at risk. Thus, the Two-Nation Theory was not a colonial innovation but an extension of Islamic political reasoning adapted to modern realities.
4. Justification and Demands of the Two-Nation Theory
- Religious, Cultural, and Civilizational Distinctiveness of the Muslim Ummah
Islam is a complete civilizational system encompassing worship, law, family structure, economics, and governance. Nonetheless, Hindu civilization, rooted in caste hierarchy and religious nationalism, fundamentally conflicts with Islam’s egalitarian and monotheistic ethos. The Qur’an’s emphasis on human equality stands in sharp contrast to caste-based social stratification. For instance, the Quran says, “The most honorable among you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous”(Al-Hujurat: 13). This irreconcilable difference justified Muslim demands for separate political space where Islamic values could flourish without compromise.
- Islamic and Historical Grounds for the Two-Nation Theory
Historically, Muslim apprehensions were validated by Congress policies, Hindu revivalist movements, and the marginalization of Muslim political voices during British rule. The failure of constitutional safeguards, such as the Nehru Report’s rejection of Muslim demands, eroded trust in Hindu-Muslim unity. Nevertheless, Islam places immense emphasis on justice and fulfillment of covenants. Therefore, repeated political betrayals convinced Muslims that shared governance would lead to systematic injustice, violating the Qur’anic command to “stand firmly for justice”(An-Nisa: 135).
- Collapse of Justice and Trust under Hindu-Majoritarian Politics
Furthermore, justice constitutes the very foundation of Islamic governance, and its absence strips political authority of moral and religious legitimacy. For instance, the Qur’an unequivocally commands, “O you who believe! Stand firmly for justice, as witnesses to Allah, even if it be against yourselves or parents and relatives”(An-Nisa: 135). Contemporary India’s political trajectory, marked by mob lynchings, discriminatory citizenship laws, and the systematic suppression of Muslim religious expression, reflects a collapse of this Qur’anic ideal of justice and equality before law. Such structural injustice confirms the fears that motivated the Two-Nation Theory, as a Hindu-majoritarian state often prioritizes power over moral and ethical fairness. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) warned that injustice brings the ruin of societies and that oppression, if allowed to persist, incurs divine accountability. The current condition of Indian Muslims demonstrates this principle in practice, showing that justice cannot endure where majoritarian authority overrides moral and ethical responsibility.
- Necessity of Muslim Political Sovereignty and Constitutional Protection
Moreover, Islam mandates the protection of faith, life, intellect, lineage, and property (Maqasid al-Shariah). The Qur’an commands, “Do not kill the soul which Allah has forbidden, except by right”(Al-Isra: 33) and “When you judge between people, judge with justice”(An-Nisa: 58). This emphasizes protection and fairness. Without political sovereignty or constitutional safeguards, these rights remain vulnerable. The creation of Pakistan was therefore an Islamic necessity, ensuring Muslims a state where faith, justice, and collective dignity could be preserved, especially after repeated marginalization under British India.
- Kashmir as a Moral and Islamic Test Case for the Two-Nation Theory
Further, Kashmir stands as the most glaring validation of the Two-Nation Theory in the contemporary era. The unilateral revocation of Article 370, demographic manipulation, and prolonged military occupation represent a denial of Muslim self-determination. Islam unequivocally condemns oppression as the Quran says, “And what is the matter with you that you do not fight in the cause of Allah and for the oppressed?”(An-Nisa: 75). The silence of international institutions and the suffering of Kashmiri Muslims demonstrate the peril of Muslim communities trapped within hostile majoritarian states.
- Human Rights Violations and Denial of Self-Determination from an Islamic Perspective
Islam recognized human dignity long before modern charters. For example, in the Quran, Allah says, “We have honored the children of Adam”(Al-Isra: 70). The systematic erosion of Muslim civil rights in India, including arbitrary arrests, media censorship, and religious profiling, constitutes a direct assault on this Qur’anic principle. Self-determination is not merely a political right but a moral entitlement in Islam, enabling communities to live according to divine guidance without coercion.
- Preservation of Muslim Faith, Identity, and Moral Order
Last but not least, Faith cannot endure under persistent oppression. Islam permits believers to migrate or establish autonomous governance when their religion is threatened, as exemplified by the Hijrah to Madinah, which secured the Muslim community’s survival and ability to practice Islam freely. The Qur’an emphasizes protection of faith and life:“And whoever emigrates for the cause of Allah will find on the earth many [alternatives] and abundant provision”(An-Nisa: 100). The Two-Nation Theory reflected this principle by providing Muslims a space to safeguard their faith, culture, and moral order. Therefore, contemporary developments in India, including attacks on mosques and discriminatory laws, demonstrate that coexistence is fragile when majoritarian power dominates state institutions, leaving Muslim identity and rights vulnerable.
Contemporary Validation of the Two-Nation Theory in the Light of Muslim Oppression
The concerns that gave rise to the Two-Nation Theory in the 1940s find tragic confirmation in today’s India. Policies such as the Citizenship Amendment Act, the National Register of Citizens in Assam, and the steady erosion of constitutional protections have made Muslims increasingly vulnerable, while mob violence and targeted attacks on mosques and Islamic institutions reflect a normalization of Islamophobia in society. These are not abstract statistics but lived realities that mirror the warnings of the Qur’an. as the Quran says, “And what is the matter with you that you do not fight in the cause of Allah and for the oppressed among men, women, and children”(An-Nisa: 75). The Two-Nation Theory, once criticized as reactionary, now appears prescient, a moral and political framework anticipating the consequences of denying a community the space to preserve its faith, identity, and dignity. Thus, it is a reminder that coexistence without justice is fragile, and that the protection of the oppressed is both a divine obligation and a societal imperative.
Critical Analysis: Islamic Demands of the Two-Nation Theory in the Present Era
In today’s world, the relevance of the Two-Nation Theory extends far beyond territorial demarcation. It calls for moral clarity, ethical leadership, and a cohesive sense of responsibility among Muslims, both within Pakistan and across the global Ummah. For instance, Allah says in the Quran, “Be steadfast in justice, even if it be against yourselves, your parents, or your relatives”(An-Nisa: 135). Therefore, the theory demands principled advocacy for communities facing persecution, such as Indian and Kashmiri Muslims, and urges Muslims to act as witnesses of justice rather than passive observers. Political sovereignty without moral and ethical engagement risks becoming hollow, serving only administrative purposes while failing to safeguard the faith, dignity, and collective rights that inspired the creation of Pakistan. Thus, true realization of the Two-Nation Theory in the modern era requires that Muslim leadership and society embrace both authority and accountability, ensuring that governance remains a vehicle for justice, moral responsibility, and the protection of the Ummah.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the plight of Indian and Kashmiri Muslims has transformed the Two-Nation Theory from a historical argument into a continuing Islamic imperative. Rooted in the Qur’anic concept of Ummah, the theory sought to protect faith, dignity, and justice through political autonomy. Contemporary realities have tragically vindicated this vision, reaffirming that without collective identity and sovereignty, Muslim existence remains perpetually vulnerable. The Two-Nation Theory thus stands not merely as a chapter of South Asian history but as a timeless Islamic response to oppression and moral exclusion.
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