CSS Solved Political Science 2026 Past Paper | Utilitarianism and its Application in Contemporary Times
The following question of CSS Political Science 2026 is solved by Miss Ayesha Irfan, a renowned CSS coach for Islamiat and Political Science. Moreover, the question is attempted using the same pattern taught by Sir Syed Kazim Ali to his students, who have scored the highest marks in compulsory and optional subjects for years. This solved past paper question is uploaded to help aspirants understand how to crack a topic or question, write relevantly, what coherence is, and how to include and connect ideas, opinions, and suggestions to score the maximum.
Question Breakdown
The question has two linked parts. First, it asks for a clear explanation of Utilitarianism as an important ideology of Western political thought, including its meaning and basic principles. Second, it requires a detailed discussion of its contemporary application, showing how utilitarian ideas influence modern governance, law, economics, technology, and healthcare. Thus, the answer must combine theory with relevant present-day examples.
Outline
1- Introduction
2- The Happiness Principle Unveiled: Conceptual Foundations and Core Tenets of Utilitarianism
3- One Doctrine, Many Paths: Exploring the Major Types of Utilitarianism
4- From Theory to Practice: Utilitarianism in the Contemporary World
A. Governing for the Greatest Good: Utilitarianism in Modern Law and Governance
- Designing Welfare-Centric States: Public Policy and Governance
- Justice as Social Utility: Law, Punishment, and Criminal Justice
B. Calculating Collective Prosperity: Utilitarianism in Modern Economic Systems
- Taxing for Social Balance: The Logic of Progressive Taxation
- Numbers that Decide Nations: Cost-Benefit Analysis as Applied Utility
C. Ethics in an Age of Crisis: Utilitarianism in Global Decision-Making
- Coding the Common Good: Technology and Artificial Intelligence Ethics
- Saving the Most Lives: Healthcare Ethics and Resource Allocation
5- Critical Challenges and Modern Defenses
6- Conclusion
Answer to the Question
Introduction
Among the many traditions of Western political thought, Utilitarianism stands out as one of the most practical and influential moral philosophies. Rather than judging actions by intentions or rigid rules, it evaluates them by their consequences for human welfare. At its heart lies a simple but powerful question: Does this action increase overall happiness or reduce suffering? Because modern governance, law, economics, and public policy constantly involve choices affecting millions, utilitarian thinking continues to shape decision-making in the contemporary world.
The Happiness Principle Unveiled: Conceptual Foundations and Core Tenets of Utilitarianism
At its core, utilitarianism rests on the belief that actions are morally right when they maximize happiness and reduce suffering. Historically, this doctrine was first systematically articulated by Jeremy Bentham, who argued that pleasure and pain should guide both law and morality. Subsequently, John Stuart Mill refined the theory by distinguishing higher intellectual pleasures from lower physical ones, thereby giving utilitarianism a more humane and qualitative dimension.
In essence, the doctrine is built on several interconnected principles. First of all, consequentialism judges actions by outcomes. Second, equality of interests ensures that each person’s welfare counts equally. Finally, rational evaluation requires weighing benefits against harms before making decisions. Taken together, these ideas transform moral philosophy into a practical framework for collective well-being.
One Doctrine, Many Paths: Exploring the Major Types of Utilitarianism
Over time, utilitarianism developed into multiple forms. On the one hand, act utilitarianism evaluates each decision individually, asking whether a specific action maximizes happiness in that moment. On the other hand, rule utilitarianism stresses the importance of following stable rules, since consistent adherence generally produces greater long-term welfare. Beyond this, preference utilitarianism shifts attention from pleasure alone to the fulfillment of individuals’ interests and choices. Therefore, utilitarianism should be understood not as a rigid formula but as a flexible ethical family adaptable to diverse contexts.
From Theory to Practice: Utilitarianism in the Contemporary World
A. Governing for the Greatest Good: Utilitarianism in Modern Law and Governance
- Designing Welfare-Centric States: Public Policy and Governance
In practice, modern welfare policies clearly reflect utilitarian reasoning. For instance, the WHO estimates that vaccination prevents 4–5 million deaths annually. It shows how public policy guided by collective welfare embodies utilitarian ethics. Similarly, conditional cash transfer programs in countries like Brazil and Mexico have lifted millions out of extreme poverty while improving school attendance and health indicators. In the same way, infrastructure projects such as urban metro systems are justified because they reduce congestion, save millions of working hours, and lower pollution levels. Consequently, governments increasingly rely on data-driven policies to maximize social benefits.
- Justice as Social Utility: Law, Punishment, and Criminal Justice
Likewise, criminal justice reforms often follow utilitarian logic. For example, Norway’s rehabilitation-focused prison model has recidivism rates near 20%, significantly lower than many punitive systems exceeding 50%. This suggests that reformative punishment enhances long-term societal welfare more effectively than retribution alone. Moreover, mechanisms such as plea bargaining aim to reduce judicial delays and deliver justice more quickly to a larger number of citizens. Thus, efficiency and social protection rather than vengeance increasingly guide legal thinking.
B. Calculating Collective Prosperity: Utilitarianism in Modern Economic Systems
- Taxing for Social Balance: The Logic of Progressive Taxation
From a fiscal perspective, progressive taxation reflects utilitarian logic by redistributing resources where they produce the greatest welfare gains. Empirically, OECD data indicate that tax-and-transfer systems in developed economies reduce income inequality by around 25–30% after redistribution. As a result, governments can finance education, healthcare, and social protection programs that benefit millions. In developing contexts, welfare initiatives such as Pakistan’s Benazir Income Support Programme similarly aim to stabilize vulnerable households and reduce poverty-related suffering. Hence, taxation becomes not only an economic instrument but also a moral strategy for collective welfare.
- Numbers that Decide Nations: Cost-Benefit Analysis as Applied Utility
Furthermore, cost-benefit analysis represents one of the most explicit applications of utilitarian thinking. For example, studies of the U.S. Clean Air Act show benefits exceeding costs by more than thirtyfold, largely through reduced healthcare expenses and longer life expectancy. Likewise, renewable energy investments are justified not only by environmental ethics but also by long-term social savings in health and climate resilience. Therefore, modern economic planning frequently operationalizes utilitarian reasoning through quantitative evaluation.
C. Ethics in an Age of Crisis: Utilitarianism in Global Decision-Making
- Coding the Common Good: Technology and Artificial Intelligence Ethics
In the digital age, utilitarian dilemmas increasingly appear in technology governance. For instance, autonomous vehicle algorithms must be designed to minimize total casualties in unavoidable accidents. Similarly, regulatory frameworks such as the EU’s AI policies attempt to balance innovation with the protection of millions of citizens from algorithmic bias and surveillance risks. Thus, technological ethics increasingly revolves around maximizing collective benefit while minimizing systemic harm.
- Saving the Most Lives: Healthcare Ethics and Resource Allocation
Perhaps most vividly, healthcare policy reflects utilitarian reasoning. During the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries prioritized vaccines for healthcare workers and elderly populations because statistical modeling showed this strategy would reduce mortality most effectively. Consequently, targeted vaccination campaigns saved millions of lives worldwide. In addition, organ transplant allocation systems prioritize patients based on survival probability and expected life-years gained. In this way, scarce medical resources are directed where they can produce the greatest overall health benefit.
Critical Challenges and Modern Defenses
However, despite its practical strengths, utilitarianism faces serious criticism. Most notably, it may appear to justify sacrificing minority rights for majority benefit. Additionally, measuring happiness objectively remains difficult, since welfare includes intangible values like dignity, identity, and freedom. Nevertheless, modern defenders argue that contemporary utilitarianism incorporates rights, justice, and long-term societal stability into its calculations. Indeed, policies that undermine fairness often create resentment and instability, ultimately reducing overall welfare. Therefore, refined utilitarian approaches increasingly align with human rights protections and sustainable governance principles.
Conclusion
In conclusion, utilitarianism endures because it offers a moral framework suited to complex modern societies where decisions must balance risks, costs, and benefits for millions. From public health and taxation to AI governance and criminal justice, its influence remains deeply embedded in contemporary policymaking. Ultimately, while debates over justice and measurement persist, the doctrine’s central insight remains compelling: ethical decision-making must aim to produce the greatest real-world benefit for humanity as a whole.
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