CSS 2026 Solved Islamiat Paper | Causes of Sectarianism and Polarization in the Muslim World
The following question of CSS Islamiat 2026 is solved by Miss Ayesha Irfan, the highest scorer in CSS Islamiat. Moreover, the question is attempted using the same pattern taught by Sir Syed Kazim Ali to his students, who have scored the highest marks in compulsory subjects for years. This solved past paper question is uploaded to help aspirants understand how to crack a topic or question, write relevantly, what coherence is, and how to include and connect ideas, opinions, and suggestions to score the maximum.
Question breakdown
The question demands identification and analysis of the causes of sectarianism and polarization in the Muslim world. It further requires suggesting practical solutions in the light of Islamic teachings aimed at restoring unity, tolerance, and harmony within the Ummah.
Outline
1- Introduction
2- Causes of Sectarianism and Polarization in the Muslim World
- Historical and Political Causes – When Power Divides: Historical and Political Roots of Sectarianism
- Religious and Ideological Causes – Faith Under Strain: How Misinterpretation Breeds Division
- Social and Economic Causes – Rifts Among the People: Social and Economic Drivers of Polarization
- External Interference – Foreign Hands, Internal Faults: How Outside Powers Exploit Muslim Divisions
3- Consequences of Sectarianism
4- Solutions in Light of Islamic Teachings
- Spiritual and Moral Measures: Heart Over Hate
- Educational and Intellectual Reforms: Knowledge as a Unifier
- Political and Institutional Measures: Justice Above All
- Social and Media Measures: Uniting the Ummah
5- Critical analysis
6- Conclusion
Answer to the Question
Introduction
Sectarianism and polarization have plagued the Muslim Ummah for centuries, transforming what should be a united community into a mosaic of fragmented groups. Despite sharing faith, language, and heritage, Muslims today often find themselves divided by historical grievances, ideological rigidity, and political manipulation. Such divisions have weakened collective moral authority, undermined governance, and left the Ummah vulnerable to both internal decay and external exploitation. However, Islam provides timeless guidance to address these fissures. By examining the causes, consequences, and remedies through the lens of Qur’an, Sunnah, and history, it becomes evident that unity is not only a moral imperative but also essential for the survival and dignity of the Muslim world.
Causes of Sectarianism and Polarization in the Muslim World
- Historical and Political Causes – When Power Divides: Historical and Political Roots of Sectarianism
Many of the roots of sectarianism in the Muslim world can be traced to the political developments during the Umayyad and subsequent dynasties. The Umayyad rulers, seeking to consolidate power, often favored certain tribes and regions over others, creating resentment and rivalries that were later interpreted through a religious lens. Policies of nepotism, exclusion of dissenting scholars, and preferential treatment of Arab elites marginalized non-Arab Muslims, fueling early sectarian consciousness. Later dynasties, including the Abbasids and regional Sultanates, sometimes exploited sectarian identities to legitimize authority or suppress opposition. Over time, historical grievances rooted in these power struggles became intertwined with religious identity, seeding divisions that persist to this day. Colonial interventions later amplified these rifts, employing divide-and-rule tactics to weaken Muslim political cohesion. These patterns show that political maneuvering and favoritism, rather than faith itself, often transform natural differences into entrenched enmity.
- Religious and Ideological Causes – Faith Under Strain: How Misinterpretation Breeds Division
Sectarianism is also fueled by misinterpretation of religious texts and rigid ideological postures. When Qur’anic verses or Hadith are selectively quoted to justify the supremacy of one group over another, faith becomes a weapon rather than a unifier. The Qur’an explicitly warns against such division. As Allah says in the Quran, “And hold firmly to the rope of Allah all together and do not become divided”(Al-Imran 3:103). Extremist ideologies that reject scholarly consensus, demonize other sects, or insist on rigid conformity amplify these divides. The rise of radical groups exploiting religion to justify violence highlights the dangers of ideological distortion.
- Social and Economic Causes – Rifts Among the People: Social and Economic Drivers of Polarization
Beyond ideology, social and economic disparities exacerbate division. Tribal loyalties, regional rivalries, and economic inequalities often overlap with sectarian identities, turning competition into conflict. For instance, in countries like Iraq and Lebanon, economic marginalization of certain communities has been exploited to deepen sectarian tensions. Similarly, in Pakistan, regions like Karachi and parts of Sindh have witnessed clashes fueled by competition for jobs, political influence, and resources among different sectarian groups, including Sunni and Shia communities. Social media and partisan narratives amplify resentment, creating echo chambers where stereotypes and grievances become entrenched. Thus, these social and economic drivers demonstrate that polarization is not only theological but also structural.
- External Interference – Foreign Hands, Internal Faults: How Outside Powers Exploit Muslim Divisions
Sectarianism is often inflamed by external actors seeking to control Muslim nations for geopolitical gains. Colonial and contemporary interventions, such as foreign funding of militias in Syria and Yemen, have transformed local differences into proxy conflicts. The Qur’an cautions against allowing outsiders to manipulate internal affairs by saying, “Do not help one another in sin and aggression”(Al-Ma’idah 5:2). The exploitation of internal weaknesses by foreign powers highlights how divisions are both self-generated and externally magnified.
Consequences of Sectarianism
The consequences of sectarianism are both tangible and moral. Politically, Muslim nations remain fragmented, unable to form strong alliances or pursue collective interests on the global stage. Socially, sectarianism fuels mistrust, violence, and discrimination, undermining cohesion and community welfare. Religiously, it tarnishes the image of Islam, portraying a faith of conflict rather than unity. Economically, it impedes development as resources are diverted to internal conflicts. On a human level, the Ummah suffers moral decay as ego, prejudice, and intolerance replace compassion, justice, and brotherhood. The cumulative effect is a weakened global presence and diminished ability to uphold Islamic principles collectively.
Solutions in Light of Islamic Teachings
- Spiritual and Moral Measures – Heart Over Hate
Unity begins with moral and spiritual revival. The Qur’an repeatedly emphasizes taqwa (God-consciousness) as a safeguard against division. By cultivating humility, forgiveness, and empathy, believers can overcome personal biases. The Prophet Muhammad (SAW) exemplified this by mediating disputes in Madina with fairness and compassion, ensuring that differences did not escalate into lasting hostility. Therefore, Leaders must mirror this principle, prioritizing ethical integrity over sectarian loyalty.
- Educational and Intellectual Reforms – Knowledge as a Unifier
Moreover, education is critical in countering misinterpretation and extremism. Curricula should highlight the shared principles of Islam rather than accentuating differences. Encouraging inter-sect dialogue, teaching Qur’an and Hadith holistically, and promoting critical thinking can prevent ideological manipulation. Historical examples, such as the cooperation between Sunni and Shia scholars in Baghdad during the Abbasid era, where institutions like the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikmah) hosted scholars of diverse sects to study, translate, and debate knowledge, illustrate that intellectual engagement can bridge divides and foster mutual respect. Such examples show that education, when grounded in inclusivity and critical inquiry, can unify the Ummah despite sectarian differences.
- Political and Institutional Measures – Justice Above All
Furthermore, governance must be impartial, transparent, and just. Leaders should avoid favoritism, ensure equitable distribution of resources, and uphold the rule of law. Hazrat Umar (RA) exemplified this principle by personally investigating complaints against governors, dismissing those found guilty regardless of rank. Such accountability ensures that politics do not exploit sectarian identities but instead foster fairness and trust.
- Social and Media Measures – Uniting the Ummah
Last but not least, societal cohesion requires positive narratives and responsible communication. Media platforms should promote inter-communal dialogue, highlight shared history and achievements, and counter hate speech. A powerful historical example of this emerged in the modern era during the Khilafat Movement in British India, when Sunni and Shia scholars stood together to defend the institution of the Caliphate against colonial dismantling, attending the 1931 Caliphate Conference in Jerusalem despite theological differences, and later working through institutions like Al‑Azhar to promote inter‑sect understanding and unity. This cooperation showed that, by emphasizing what unites rather than what divides, social structures and media can play a transformative role in healing the Ummah.
Critical analysis
A critical look at sectarianism in the Muslim world shows that these divisions are not merely theoretical but have tangible social and political consequences. For instance, in Iraq and Lebanon, sectarian tensions have contributed to recurring conflicts and civil unrest, with surveys indicating that over 60 % of communities report limited social trust across sectarian lines, and political paralysis is often linked to sect-based rivalries. Such divisions mirror historical fractures rooted in political disputes and ideological rivalries during early Islamic and subsequent dynastic periods. However, Allah says in the Quran, “Hold firmly to the rope of Allah all together and do not become divided” (Al‑Imran 3:103). These principles show that while the challenges are deep-rooted and widespread, ethical guidance, inclusive governance, and communal dialogue can mitigate sectarian polarization and restore social cohesion across Muslim societies.
Conclusion
In conclusion, sectarianism and polarization have historical, ideological, social, and external causes, yet they are neither inevitable nor insurmountable. The Qur’an and Sunnah provide both the moral framework and practical guidance to restore unity, emphasizing justice, knowledge, and spiritual consciousness. By combining personal morality, educational reform, fair governance, and societal engagement, the Muslim Ummah can overcome its divisions. The enduring lesson of Islam is clear: true strength arises when belief, character, and governance operate in harmony, ensuring that the Ummah remains a force of justice, compassion, and resilience in the world.
Searching for CSS or PMS Solved Islamiat Past Papers?
Are you preparing for CSS or PMS and searching for solved Islamiat past papers, notes, books, PDFs, and MCQs? Explore them for free on Howtests and Cssprepforum. All content is fully solved and written by Miss Ayesha Irfan. For your convenience, the links are provided below. Simply click on any to start reading and preparing.
