CSS 2010 Solved Pakistan Affairs Past Papers | Military Intervention in Pakistan’s Politics
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Question Breakdown
In this question, the examiner has asked you three things: first, why the military of Pakistan intervened in Pakistan’s politics, and second, what is the role of the present leadership to de-politicize the army; third, specific measures to abate the issue. So, start with an introduction by writing all the leading points of your answer. Then, write the main body by splitting it into three parts. Last, end your answer with a conclusion.
Outline
1- Introduction
2- Historical Background of the Military Intervention in Pakistani Politics
3- Why did the military of Pakistan intervene in Pakistan’s politics?
- ✔ Filled the Power Vacuum Created by Weak Civil Institutions
- ✔ Stabilized the Government Mandate Marred by Political Instability
- ✔ Ensured the Security of the State against Internal and External Non-State Actors
- ✔ Strengthened its Position in the Power Hierarchy
4- What is the Role of the Present Leadership to De-Politicize the Army?
- ✔ By Constitutionally Restricting the Discretionary Powers of the President and Strengthening Civil Institutions
- ✔ By Constitutionally Declaring the Abrogation/Holding in Abeyance of Constitution Subjected to High Treason
- ✔ By Decentralization that Diluted Strength of Military Influence
- ✔ By Decentralization of the Financial Resources that Diluted Elite Capture on Policy Making
5- Critical Analysis
6- Conclusion
Answer to the Question
Introduction
The military intervention in the politics of Pakistan symbolizes periodic interventions of the military in the decision-making cadre through the proclamation of emergency. Generally, in a democratic country, after the imposition of an emergency due to acute politico-economic instability or breakdown of civil-military relations, general elections are conducted to resume civilian rule. However, in the case of Pakistan, after taking over, the military exploited the presidential authority to legitimize their rule. For example, the military intervention by Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA) Ayub Khan from 1958- 69, by CMLA-Yahya Khan from 1969-1971, by President and CMLA-Zia-ul-haq from 1979-1988, and by CMLA-Pervaiz Musharraf from 1999-2007. The following points describe the reasons for military intervention in the country’s politics. The military intervened to fill the power vacuum created by weak civil institutions, to stabilize the government mandate marred by political instability, to ensure the internal and external security of the state, and to strengthen its position in the power hierarchy. The present leadership played a significant role in de-politicizing the army by constitutionally restricting the discretionary powers of the president and strengthening civil institutions by constitutionally declaring the abrogation/holding in abeyance of the constitution subjected to high treason, by decentralization that diluted the strength of military influence, and by decentralization of the financial resources that diluted elite capture on policy making. However, the influence must be tackled through addressing constitutional loopholes. Although the 18th Amendment proved fruitful in curtailing the military’s direct influence, however, several areas remained untouched. In addition, implementation of the Constitutional Amendment in its true sense is indispensable to get the desired results.
Historical Background of the Military Intervention in Pakistani Politics
Historically, the military of Pakistan, which includes the army, air force, naval force, and para-military forces, held a unique position, influencing decision-making and policy-making for internal and external affairs of the state. Considering the unique position of the military, historians often referred to the country as a Garrison State and an Insecurity State. The credit goes to its insecure position at the crossroads of Central Asia, Central Asia, and the Middle East, sharing the border with arch-rival India, the highly insecure state of Afghanistan, Iran, and emerging power China. The internal and external insecurity conditions make the country insecure; however, the role of non-state actors further aggravated the security conditions. In addition, politics is highly polarized and unstable. Besides, the civil-military relations often remained distorted. By analyzing the state’s profile, it can be said that the influence of the military in politics can be traced back to its establishment in 1947. In the political and military history of the state, four martial laws were promulgated by military dictators such as the martial law of 1958 by Ayub Khan, 1969 by Yahya Khan, 1977 by Zia-ul-Haq, and 1999 by Pervez Musharraf. The martial laws were legitimized by the judiciary under the umbrella of the Doctrine of necessity.
Why did the military of Pakistan intervene in Pakistan’s politics?
Military Interventions and the exclusive position of the army in the politics of Pakistan have remained one of the most debated topics throughout the country’s politico-military history. From distorted civil-military relations to the military forceful legitimization of the rule to influencing policy-making, the military has played a significant role in the politics of the country. The following points describe the reasons for military intervention in politics.
- ✔ To Fill the Power Vacuum Created by Weak Civil Institutions
First, since 1947, the legitimacy, prolonged standing in the power hierarchy, and evolution of civil leadership was marred by political polarization that contributed to devastating political instability. The civil institutions lagged in developing themselves as a competitive force that secures legitimacy and holds power mandates in the state. Conversely, the military evolved as a compatible, capable, organized, competent, and strong base institution, capable of taking the foremost place in the affairs of the state. Meanwhile, political instability, polarization, leadership crisis, and discords between the federating units created a power vacuum. As a result of the discord and loose nexus between civil or parliamentary forces, a power vacuum was created and later filled by the potential cadre, the military. Samuel P. Huntington, the author of The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations, explicitly addresses the theme and argues that weak civilian institutions and governance can lead to increased military intervention in politics. The testimony is prolonged mandates of military rule in the country, referred to as martial laws, signify direct inclusion rather than just influencing the civil institutions.
- ✔ To Stabilize the Government Mandate Marred by Political Instability
Second, the military stepped in to stabilize the state, restore law and order, and fill the governance gaps caused by the political unrest, as stated by army martial law administrates. However, the government mandates preceding martial laws were succeeded by pro-longed military rules. For illustration, the ninety-day emergency period following Chief Martial Law administrator Zia-Ul-Haq’s takeover failed to restore order through renewed elections and was followed by ten-year prolonged military rule marked by manipulated presidential elections. Hasan Askari Rizvi, the author of the book Military, State, and Society in Pakistan, explored how the weakness of political institutions in Pakistan allowed the military to dominate the country’s political and economic landscape. Thus, the military established direct rule in the name of stabilizing order.
- ✔ To Ensure the Security of the State against Internal and External Non-State Actors
Third, the military took the stance of restoring order in the state to stamp the correctness of their prolonged rules. Shuja Nawaz, the author of the book Crossed Swords: Pakistan, Its Army, and the Wars Within highlighted that the military often justified its intervention by citing the need to maintain internal stability and defend the nation against internal and external threats. The country is often symbolized as a garrison state due to its geographical contiguity with India’s arch-rival, Iran, insecure due to its nuclear designs, Afghanistan, insecure due to its terrorist designs, and China, the evolving power hegemon. China is regarded as an all-weather friend, but its border issues with India often destabilize security in the region. In addition, the presence of highly insecure factors, such as separatist elements and non-state actors in the provinces of Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, further destabilize its security. So, there is no space for political turmoil as it gives space to separatists to pursue their designs. In addition, this fact gave the military an exclusive position in influencing policymaking. Thus, in the case of political instability, the military steps in to ensure sovereignty, security, and stability of the state from the anti-state factions.
- ✔ To Strengthen its Position in the Power Hierarchy
Last, the military implicit notion of strengthening its position in the power hierarchy. In the political structure, especially in the insecure states, the military holds an exclusive position and influences decision-making. In the case of Pakistan, as it was carved out of the Indian subcontinent, the military’s strong position was the need of the time. Other factors, such as internal insecurity, granted a position in influencing the state’s internal matters. So, intervention in politics is an outcome of these circumstances. As Ayesha Siddiqa describes in her book Military Inc.: Inside Pakistan Military Economy, the military has used its interventions in politics to expand and consolidate its economic and political power. In another way, the interventions further expanded military power, but certain steps were taken on behalf of the civilian government to curtail military power in politics, such as the 18th Amendment in the Constitution of 1973.
What is the Role of the Present Leadership in De-Politicizing the Army?
De-politicizing military extraordinary strength in the decision-making cadre is inevitable to ensure civil democratic rule and inhibit oligarchy. Similarly, the state’s government takes steps to de-politicize the military by constitutional means.
- ✔ By Constitutionally Restricting the Discretionary Powers of the President and Strengthening Civil Institutions
First, the PPP government-led 18th constitutional amendment in the Constitution of 1973 squeezed the discretionary powers of the office of president that were often misused by the military rulers. For illustration, it eliminated clause 58 2(b) that gave discretionary powers to the president to dissolve the National Assembly unilaterally. Thus, it strengthened the office of the prime minister and widened the provincial autonomy. Moreover, it strengthened the civil institutions by decentralizing the political and financial power.
- ✔ By Constitutionally Declaring the Abrogation/Holding in Abeyance of Constitution Subjected to High Treason
Second, the 18th Amendment in the Constitution of 1973 widened the scope of Article 6 that provided any person who abrogates, subverts, or suspends the Constitution through unconstitutional or illegal means is guilty of high treason. The Amendment filled loopholes by adding that anyone who holds the constitution in abeyance is guilty of high treason. The first and most notable implementation of Article 6 was seen in the high treason case against General Pervez Musharraf in 2013. He was charged with high treason under Article 6 for imposing an emergency rule in 2007. As a result, he was sentenced to death but died before its implementation.
- ✔ By Decentralization that Diluted Strength of Military Influence
Third, the 18th Amendment decentralized the political and financial power and widened provincial autonomy for the federating units. Thus, it has strengthened inclusivity in decision-making. The concurrent list was abolished and provincial legislative lists expanded in their significance for provinces. It has devolved several ministries from the federal to the provincial level, such as the Ministry of Local Government was given to provincial governments and abolished at the federal level. Then, the Ministry of Zakat and Ushr was abolished at the federal level given to federating units.
- ✔ By Decentralization of the Financial Resources that Diluted Elite Capture on Policy Making
Last, the 18th Amendment supported the decentralization of financial power and gave federating units control over natural resources and revenue generation. The resource distribution on the devisable pool under the National Finance Commission (NFC) has been strengthened by ensuring its regularity every five years and no reduction in resource allocation to provinces as compared to the previous Award. It has reinforced the 57.5% share of the divisible pool for provinces formalized under the 7th NFC Award (2009). Thus, it strengthened provincial powers by increasing their fiscal shares to 57.5% of the divisible pool and limited the military’s influence on provincial governments through financial controls.
Critical Analysis
A pragmatic way forward for de-politicizing the military requires addressing the challenges that inhibit reducing military control. The military has significant control over the state’s internal and external policy to ensure security. However, its overreach in influencing policy, referred to as elite capture on policy, must be tackled through constitutional means. Although the 18th Amendment proved fruitful in curtailing the military’s direct influence, several areas remained untouched, such as considering foreign powers’ interest in policy formulation regarding India, Afghanistan, and Iran. In the other way, internal and external security matters, if dealt with diplomatic means, help in strengthening the position of civil institutions. In this case, the media also helps to build a positive image of Pakistan on international platforms. Further, tourism financing can also help in promoting the soft image of the country, such as recent tourists from Kazakhstan and the United States promoting soft image after self-experiencing the internal situation. Thus, the soft image helps civil forces mitigate security issues through constitutional means. Then, although the 18th Amendment blocked the judiciary from validating unconstitutional takeovers, past decisions still cast a shadow over the civilian authority that needed to be addressed through constitutional means. Last, military entities, such as the National Logistics Cell and Fauji Foundations, generated capital referred to as Milbus by Ayesha Saddiqa, which needed to be checked because Milbus helps the military in seeking allegiances of aspired politicians.
Conclusion
To conclude, military interventions in politics symbolize the significance of their unique position in the decision-making cadre, influencing external and internal affairs. The four martial laws in the military and political history of the state demonstrated various factors, such as political instability, insecurity conditions, and economic insecurity, which gave way to military interventions under the umbrella of emergency. In addition, the military intervened in politics to strengthen its position in the decision-making cadre. However, the constitutional blockades helped de-politicize the military, such as the 18th Amendment in the Constitution of 1973. Last, certain constitutional loopholes need to be addressed that can further help de-politicize the military.
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