CSS 2016 Solved Pakistan Affairs Past Papers | Jinnah’s Two-Nation Theory in the Light of the Lahore Resolution
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Question Breakdown
In this question, the examiner has asked you to describe the Lahore Resolution of 1940 and the two-nation theory analytically while quoting Jinnah. You must write the answer in the context of the provided statement. So, first, introduce your answer by adding all the leading points you will add to your answer. Then, write historical background to contextualize the answer and link it to the leading statement to make it relatable. Then, split your answer according to both topics. Last, end your answer with a critical analysis and conclusion.
Outline
1-Introduction
2-Historical Background of the Political Problems Emerged in the Indian-subcontinent Due to its Inter-Communal Character
3-Which Social and Political Factors Proved that the Problem in India is not of an Inter-Communal Character but manifestly of an International One?
3.1 Social Factors
- ✓Development of Two Nation theory as a Tool for the Perseverance of Separate Communal Identity
- ✓Two Nation Theory and the Concept of Pan-Islamism
- ✓Two-Nation Theory and Muslim Nationalism in the Subcontinent
- ✓Two-Nation Theory and the Failure of Hindu-Muslim Reconciliatory Efforts
- ✓Two-Nation Theory and the Uncompromising Stance of Muslims over the Socio-Cultural and Religious Perseverance
3.2 Political Factors
- ✓Development of the Idea of a Separate Electorate to a Separate State, The Lahore Resolution 1940
- ✓Failure of Joint Electorates and Notion of the Political Distinctiveness
- ✓Failure in the Continuation of Lucknow Pact of 1916
- ✓Failure of Congress Ministries 1937
- ✓Failure in Reaching a Mutual Constitutional Agreement and Hindu-Muslim Contradictory Stands
4-Critical Analysis
5-Conclusion
Answer to the Question
Introduction
The Two-Nation Theory is an ideology, idea, and concept that refers to the notion that Hindus and Muslims are two nations living whether in South Asia or any part of the world; however, it demonstrates the truthfulness of what Jinnah said in the speech he delivered in the Lahore Resolution of 1940 that problem in India is not inter-communal but of international one. It symbolizes that Muslims and Hindus were only two communities but two different nations, as the theory ultimately led to the creation of Pakistan in 1947. The Indian subcontinent had two major communities, the Muslims and the Hindus; however, they never compromised on their socio-religious identity. Myriad socio-political factors proved this fact. First, the Two Nation Theory was developed as a tool for the perseverance of the separate identity of Muslims as it got associated with the concept of pan-Islamism. As a result, a widespread Muslim religious nationalism led to the creation of Pakistan. Second, the sense of a distinct nation among the Muslims led to the failure of Hindu-Muslim reconciliatory efforts, such as the Lucknow Pact of 1916. Politically, the development of the ideology made it possible for the Muslims to reach the Lahore Resolution of 1940, where they demanded a separate state, namely Pakistan because they realized that Hindu-dominated democratic India may pose a threat to their identity. Similarly, it was the reason behind the failure of joint electorates, and the notion of political distinctiveness arose among the Muslim leadership. The elections of 1937 brought a decisive movement for the Muslim leadership when Congress leadership decided not to share government with the League. Hence, the journey of Muslims from having an ideology of two nations to reaching a demand for a separate state in the Lahore Resolution of 1940 proved the legitimacy of Jinnah’s stance.
Historical Background of the Political Problems Emerged in the Indian-subcontinent Due to its Inter-Communal Character
Historically, the Indian subcontinent has remained home to a diverse ethno-linguistic and religious population. As a result, the cultural transfer happened as demonstrated by its cultural richness whether in the form of Mughal art and architecture or traces of the Hellenistic culture in Gandhara Art. Indubitably, a sense of unity among these diverse populations aided them in living in a Muslim-dominated sultanate. But they never compromise on their religious identity. So, in the pre-British era, rulers opted for compromises and settlements instead of combating by waging wars against these diverse groups, namely Marathas, Sikhs, Rajputs, and many more. Similarly, after the establishment of British rule, several rebellions took place because the local population never wanted to compromise on their identities. It was not only the predecessor Muslim rulers but also the Hindus who made alliances to obstruct the British from gaining political power in the Indian Subcontinent. As a result, the British government faced several obstacles in the way of governing the newly occupied country. Hence, they decided to target the two main ethnicities to break their united power and devised the ‘divide and rule policy’ to easily govern the country. However, neither society remained away from resisting the rule nor the political forces of independent states. Even the War of Independence of 1857 was a result of the British’s inability to realize the distant nature of the Indian population. Almost all the rebellious movements during the hundred years of the British imperialistic period happened for the perseverance of their ethno-religious identities whether in the form of war or social resistance movements, such as the Non-cooperation Movement, Fariazi Movement, Titu mir Movement, or the Quit India Movement. The British government realized that they wouldn’t govern the Indian subcontinent without involving the local Indians in the decision-making process. For example, the Constitutional Reform Acts presented by the British government were not only meant to frame the constitution for governing the Indian subcontinent but also for involving Local Indians in the governance process. The acceptance of separate electorates in 1909 and its expansion in 1919 to other religious minorities was a testimony that they couldn’t resist the inter-communal feuds that often happened for the perseverance of their socio-religious identity of the Indian population.
Which social and political factors Prove that the problem in India is not of an inter-communal character but manifestly of an international one?
Proceeding to the next, the Muslims and the Hindus of the Indian subcontinent were not just two different communities but two different nations. For illustration, neither the Muslims nor Hindus compromised their socio-religious identity nor did they make settlements with each other at the cost of their identity. Simply, they never wanted a collective gain at the cost of individual loss of their identities. The following socio-political factors proved that the socio-political problems in the Indian subcontinent were not simply due to its inter-communal character but manifestly an international one.
A- Social Factors
- ✓Two Nation Theory and the Concept of Pan-Islamism
First, the evolution of the Two Nation Theory was not limited to the Indian subcontinent; neither was the concept born in the fifteenth century nor the nineteenth century. It was only demonstrated by scholars like Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, Shah Wali Ullah, and Sir Syed Ahmad Khan in the respective centuries. However, the concept of two nations was conceived with the birth of Islam and evolved in Muslim nations across the world. Historically, the ideology of the two nations was demonstrated in the evolution of the pan-nationalist ideologies, namely Pan-Arabism and Pan-Islamism. For example, it was described by Al-Beruni in his writings in the 11th century. According to Al-Beruni, as he aptly said in his book ‘‘Kitab-ul-Hind’’, Muslims and Hindus are like two streams that have sometimes touched but never emerged, they differ in every aspect of their lives, which other nations have in common. The concept of pan-Islamism not only unified the Muslims of the Ottoman Empire but also strengthened the ideology of the Two Nation Theory in the Indian subcontinent. The Mughal emperors considered themselves the representatives of Ottoman Caliphs, so the ideology of pan-Islamism was shared across the regions, united Muslim Ummah, and awakened the consciousness about the perseverance of separate identity among them. For example, the Khilafat Movement in the Indian subcontinent showed the unity of the Muslim Ummah as a nation. Hence, the concept that Muslims and Hindus are two nations and that Muslims across the world are one nation comprehends the notion that the problems of the Hindu-Muslim community are not communal but an international one.
- ✓Two Nation theory as a Tool for the Perseverance of Separate Communal Identity
Second, the Muslims of the Indian subcontinent, under the umbrella of the ideology, preserved their separate socio-religious identity against the anti-Muslim threats that emerged in the society. For example, the socio-religious reforms of Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi against the impacts of the Akbar policy of ‘Din-i-Ilahi’ were meant to preserve the separate identity of Muslims. He did this by realizing the Muslims of their separate identity and prohibited inter-cultural practices, which were amalgamated into Muslim society. Then, the revivalist of the 18th century, Shah-Walli-Ullah, attempted to reform the Muslim society of the Indian subcontinent to preserve the separate Muslim society. After that, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan highlighted the notion of two nations in his writing to demonstrate the distinct position of Muslims. Hence, throughout the ruling periods of the Mughals and the British, the Muslims never compromised on their separate identity, neither for political gains nor for economic gains. If they did so, then it was wise to say that Hindus and Muslims were just two separate communities, not nations.
- ✓Two-Nation Theory and Muslim Nationalism in the Subcontinent
Third, the thing that motivated Muslim nationalism in the second half of the 19th century and flourished in the first half of the 20th century was the Two-Nation Theory. Indubitably, it was the Muslim-cum-religious nationalism in colonial India that strengthened the Jinnah constitutional struggle to achieve a separate state for the Muslims. The Muslim dream of creating a model Islamic society was meant to preserve their separate identity, which was the basis of the Two-Nation Theory. As Anatol Lieven aptly said in his book, Pakistan a Hard Country, the wave of mass religious enthusiasm powered the Muslim League in the last years before partition. The Pakistan movement therefore was one in which a secular-minded leadership coexisted with mass support motivated by the cry of ‘Islam in danger’. However, the sense of ‘Islam in danger’ was fuelled by local and regional events, such as anti-Muslim movements, Britain’s system of democracy that gave Hindus predominantly a numeric dominance over the Muslims, and the treachery of the Indian National Congress (INC) after the establishment of ministries about forming a coalition government in the provinces with the All India Muslim League (AIML).
- ✓Two-Nation Theory and the Failure of Hindu-Muslim Reconciliatory Efforts
Fourth, several efforts made on behalf of the Hindu-Muslim leadership to preserve the unity of the masses were met with failure and those successes didn’t remain consistent because the Muslims never wanted to compromise on their separate identity. The sense of their distant identity made them respond quickly against the anti-Muslim attempts made by Hindus or the British government. For example, the Muslim movements for the perseverance of their identity was the staunchest response against the anti-Muslim movements led by Hindus. Similarly, they not only against the government’s policies the British that put Muslims’ identity in danger but also they responded against their societal subjugation, such as Constructionism. They opposed it because they never wanted to compromise on the education (Madrassa System) of new generations of Muslims that form the basis of the perseverance of their identity. Thus, in British India, the Indian nationalist Muslim leadership soon realized that the Muslim population always wanted to secure their identity and transformed into communalists. As Jinnah, the founding father of Pakistan, aptly said “India is not a national state, not a country but a Sub-continent composed of nationalities, the two major nations being Hindus and the Muslims whose culture and civilizations, language and literature, art and architecture, names and nomenclature, sense of value and proportion, aptitudes and ambitions, laws and jurisprudence, social moral codes, customs and calendar, history and traditions, outlook on life and of life are fundamentally different. By all canons of international law, we are a nation.” Then, they transformed their stance from taking refuge in the united India to getting a separate Muslim state. Hence, the fact that caused the failure of the Lucknow Pact of 1916 and all the Hindu-Muslim reconciliatory efforts was the sense of a separate nation among the Muslim masses.
- ✓Two-Nation Theory and the Uncompromising Stance of Muslims over the Socio-Cultural and Religious Perseverance
Adding more, the staunchest and uncompromising stance of the Indian Muslims over the continuity of socio-cultural position and religious values without any amalgamation of the foreign culture or innovations inspired by pagan religious practices was the testimony that they never accepted their subjugation at any cost. The Two-Nation Theory provides a title to this stance to the sentiments of Muslims. From the opposition to constructionism to the demand for a separate state, all the factors are evident in the voice of Muslims ‘Islam is in danger’. However, it’s not only a religious commitment that inspired the Indian Muslims to fight for the perseverance of their identity but also a commitment of one nation to the perseverance of their socio-cultural identity.
B- Political Factors
After the War of Independence of 1857, the Indian Legislative Council of 1861 opened the door to politics for Indians. As a result, the first pan-Indian political organization, the Indian National Congress INC, was established as a moderate body on December 28, 1885. To counter-balance the influence of the INC, the All India Muslim League (AIML) was established in 1906 to represent the interests of Muslims in the Indian sub-continent. The reason that INC failed to remain a single representative body of the local Indian masses was the Muslims and Hindus were never compromised on their separate identity. The parties opted to be separate representative bodies because the promise of the preservation of the socio-cultural identity was a prime means of securing mass support. The fact is the testimony that Hindu-Muslim feuds were not only communal but had international importance.
- ✓Development of the Idea of a Separate Electorate to a Separate State, The Lahore Resolution 1940
First, when Muslims realized that INC calls for significant political representation of Indians in the British Indian government are facilitating only Hindu interests for most of its political agenda they raised the demand for separate representation in the form of separate electorates for Muslims. However, the establishment of the Congress ministries in 1937 altered AIML’s stance from taking refuge in united India to a separate Muslim state. As Anatol Lieven describes in his book, Pakistan a Hard Country, the decisive moment for the demand for a separate state as a slogan came after the elections of 1937 when Congress leadership decided that it did not need to share government with the League. The transition from raising demand for a separate electorate to a separate state was the testimony that the Muslims and Hindus of united India were two nations’ not just distinct communities. Hence, Jinnah proposed a separate state in the Lahore Resolution of 1940.
- ✓Failure of Joint Electorates and Notion of the Political Distinctiveness
Periodically, the political leadership tried for Hindu-Muslim reconciliation but all the efforts proved to be in vain. The Muslim masses wanted the preservation of their socio-cum-religious identity. So, the Muslim leadership raised the notion of political distinctiveness that showed their central approach to the perseverance of the separate identity of the Muslims. Because the joint electorates failed to represent both nations before the Shimla Deputation of 1906. The history of the failure of the joint electorates before 1906 made the Muslim leadership reject the proposal of joint electorates in the Nehru Report 1928. The reason behind the failure of the joint electorate was not only the distinct demands of the two communities but also the distinct identity of the two nations.
- ✓Failure in the Continuation of Lucknow Pact of 1916
Politically, the Lucknow Pact of 1916 provided the platform to British Indian Muslim and Hindu leadership where they agreed to reconciliation. This agreement was considered a culmination of the Hindu-Muslim unity. However, the failure to the continuity of this historic agreement strengthened the belief that the Hindus and Muslims were two nations. Their problems were not communal and could be solved by dragging them under the umbrella of the secular constitution of the British or by agreeing on their demand for separate electorates. It was obvious that the acceptance of Hindus would be transformed into rejection. Moreover, the Nehru Report of 1928 proved it by rejecting a separate electorate system for Muslims.
- ✓Failure of Congress Ministries 1937
As I discussed earlier, the decisive moment for Pakistan as a slogan came with the elections of 1937 when Congress leadership decided that it did not need to share government with the League. However, the treachery of Congress convinced Jinnah that they would be excluded from power in a Hindu-dominated democratic India. The Muslim Leadership could decide to be in united India in an independent state but they sorted out for a separate and independent state. The reason was the uncompromising stance of the Muslims on their identity. To them, Hindu-dominated democratic India was a threat to their socio-political and religious identity.
- ✓Failure in Reaching a Mutual Constitutional Agreement and Hindu-Muslim Contradictory Stands
Next, the British government tried to bring Hindus and Muslims on a mutual platform several times by constitutional means. However, neither by providing constitutional safeguards nor by granting rights did they remain unsuccessful in maintaining peace between the two communities. Even when the 3rd June Plan was announced, Mountbatten tried to persuade the Hindu and Muslim leadership to reconsider the Cabinet Mission Plan 1946, which proposed a united India. However, the leadership made him realize that the constitutional remedies would not prove significant when the question was about two nations, not communities.
Critical Analysis
In a robust analysis, the Two Nation theory was ultimately enshrined in the Lahore Resolution of 1940 and led to the creation of Pakistan in 1947. Moreover, it proved the rightness of Jinnah’s stance on the inter-communal character of the Indian subcontinent, as he said in the Lahore Resolution of 1940 that the problem in India was not inter-communal but international. The Two-Nation Theory states that two different nations can’t coexist under the same country. Myriad examples prove this fact. For example, the secessionist movements in Atal Onia (Spain), Scotland (United Kingdom), or Quebec (Canada) demonstrate that distant nations can’t be forced to live under the broader political order. In addition, the sense of a distinct nation led to the failure of the reconciliatory efforts between the two different nations of Muslims and Hindus in the Indian subcontinent.
Conclusion
To conclude, the sense of Two Nations led to the creation of Pakistan in 1947 and demonstrated the truthfulness of what Jinnah said in the speech he delivered in the Lahore Resolution of 1940 that the problem in India is not inter-communal but of international one. The Muslims and the Hindus never compromised on their socio-religious identity. Myriad socio-political factors proved this fact. First, the Two Nation Theory was developed as a tool for the perseverance of the separate identity of Muslims. It was a widespread religious nationalism that led to the creation of Pakistan. Second, the sense of a distinct nation among the Muslims led to the failure of Hindu-Muslim reconciliatory efforts, such as the Lucknow Pact of 1916. Then, the sense of a distinct nation made it possible for the Muslims to reach the Lahore Resolution of 1940, demanding a separate state. Because they realized that Hindu-dominated democratic India may pose a threat to their identity. For the same reason, the joint electorates system failed, and the notion of political distinctiveness arose among the Muslim leadership. Thus, the journey of Muslims from having a sense of distinct identity to reaching a demand for a separate state in the Lahore Resolution of 1940 proved the legitimacy of Jinnah’s stance.
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